Techniques for the Identification of Unknown Microorganisms

Techniques for the Identification of Unknown Microorganisms Identification of Unknown Microorganisms For years and years, we have been trying to classify and understand microorganisms, and in doing so, we learned of certain techniques to identify them based on what they look like, where they live, and what they eat. We used this knowledge to derive simple tests to run, and we used a key to narrow down our choices, all in an effort to identify a microorganism. Beginning in the earliest labs with the earliest microbiologists, the most common way to identify an organism is to look at it and look at what it does. In microbiology of bacteria, is it round (cocci) or rod-shaped (bacilli)? Does it stain purple (gram +) or red (gram -)? Does it use lactose as food, while creating an acidic product that can be observed? These tests based on the physiology/morphology and biochemistry fall under what is known as classic identification  [1]. Classic techniques focus on the ability of a bacterium to grow and reproduce in certain conditions, such as the fact that bile salts can interact unfavora bly with the peptidoglycan cell walls of gram positive bacteria, therefore selecting against their growth. Most tests are used to specifically select for or differentiate between the species, this in conjunction with a dichotomous key helps narrow down the choices until one is satisfactory. In contrast, modern methods of identification are based on the technological advances of recent years, namely, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and genetics. The use of PCR to identify bacteria is rooted in the study of genetic coding, in particular, RNA. Every bacterium has strands of RNA that is used to bind the mRNA for translation: the 16s ribosomal RNA (rRNA)  [2]. This sequence is conserved in all bacteria and can be used to identify species after amplification through the PCR process. Since every species has a different genetic make-up, it is simply a matter of time for identification. But for most purposes, getting samples to a PCR and running them takes quite some effort, and a lot of m oney, thus the simpler and more efficient method is the classical testing. At one point or another, we all have gotten the sore throat and cough. These symptoms are sometimes caused by microbes in the pharynx that shouldnt be there. Bacteria such as Streptococcus pneumonia, Haemophilus influenza, and Moraxella catarrhalis can infect the area and cause this sore feeling. A more serious offender, Streptococcus pyogenes, causes what is commonly known as strep throat. These bacteria make the pharynx sore by harvesting erythrocytes and breaking them down as sources of food, in turn, destroying the lining and causing the all familiar sore feeling1. A simple test on a blood supplemented agar helps reveal what source of pathogen is causing the sickness. The agar is inoculated and incubated until growth is seen, and the plate will show a pattern of hemolysis if caused by one of the bacterial pathogens. Beta hemolysis is the ability to fully metabolize the cell and hemoglobin and will produce a clear halo around the colonies. Alpha hemolysis is the partial breakdowns of hemoglobin into billiverdin, making the halo appear yellow/green. Gamma hemolysis is the absence of halo, as it means the organism cannot lyse erythrocytes1. Procedures: Respiratory swab: Take a sterile cotton swab and swab the tonsilary region Inoculate blood agar by rolling the cotton tip in a streak plate method After the initial line, discard the swab in biohazard bin, and continue with a flamed inoculation loop Second swab: Take a sterile cotton swab and swab the tonsilary region Place the swab in a test tube Dilute to 10-3 and 10-4 Make a pour plate with nutrient agar Unknown identification: To start to identify any unknown organism by classical methods, it is necessary to create an appropriate dichotomous key to accompany the tests. The first step to any key is the gram stain; this essentially splits the number of possible organisms in half, gram positive and negative. Further tests based on morphology and biochemistry will select and differentiate between common characteristics of species until one organism stands out. At the start of every lab day, fresh streak plates and broths are prepared to keep the organism isolated and fresh. Take a single colony and prepare streak plates, one for 37 °C and one for 25 °C Prepare broths aseptically in similar fashion Dichotomous key: The dichotomous key was prepared using only the organisms on the list provided by Dr. Maxwell. Gram stain: The gram stain separates bacteria into two main groups, gram positive and gram negative. The peptidoglycan cell walls of gram positive organisms will absorb the crystal violet stain and appear purple under microscope inspection. The gram negative bacteria lose their outer membrane during the decolorization step and will absorb the safranin stain, appearing red. Prepare specimen by taking an isolated colony and heat fixing on a slide Apply crystal violet stain for 60 sec Wash with water Apply iodine fixer for 45 sec Wash with water Rinse with decolorizer for exactly 8-10 sec Wash with water Apply safranin for 60 sec If gram positive, the next step in my dichotomous key is to differentiate based on morphology: is it a cocci or bacilli? This step will split the organisms by shape, essentially cutting the number in half. Using the gram stain slide, look at the shape of the specimen under 100x oil immersion Bacilli are rod-shaped cocci are round If bacilli, run the catalase test. The catalase test will reveal if the organism has catalase, an enzyme used to breakdown harmful oxidizing agents such as hydrogen peroxide, which could be made as a result of metabolism. A drop of hydrogen peroxide is added to the specimen placed on a slide. A positive result will cause bubbles to form, indicating presence of catalase. Put a colony on a slide Add hydrogen peroxide Observe bubbles/no bubbles If catalase negative, as in no bubbles formed, the organism is Lactobacillus acidophilus. The bacteria are part of healthy normal flora and aids in digestion  [3]  . If catalase positive, the endospore stain must be used for further classification. The endospore is a tough spore formed by some bacteria during harsh environments. The spore will be dyed green in contrast to a cell dyed red. Prepare a specimen by heat fixing on slide Cover the slide with bibulous paper Add methylene blue Place slide on steamer over a Bunsen burner Steam for 7-10 minutes, applying additional methylene blue to prevent the paper from drying out Remove slide and paper Cool for no more than 30 seconds and rinse Counterstain with safranin for 1 minute Rinse and blot dry If endospore positive, the bacteria is Bacillus subtilis. The organism is found readily in the soil and can form a tough endospore when conditions become unfavorable. Bacillus is also a great model organism for gram positive studies  [4]  . If endospore negative, the organism is Corynebacterium diphtheriae. This bacterium is the cause of diphtheria, a respiratory infection. If the organism observed is cocci, run the catalase test. The catalase test will reveal if the organism has catalase, an enzyme used to breakdown harmful oxidizing agents such as hydrogen peroxide, which could be made as a result of metabolism. A drop of hydrogen peroxide is added to the specimen placed on a slide. A positive result will cause bubbles to form, indicating presence of catalase. Put a colony on a slide Add hydrogen peroxide Observe bubbles/no bubbles If catalase negative, the organism is Enterococcus faecalis. It is commonly found in the digestive tract of humans and is considered part of the normal flora. It does not produce catalase. If catalase positive, the use of mannitol salt agar is used to differentiate between the staphylococcus and micrococcus bacteria. Mannitol salt agar is used to select for staphylococcus. Staphylococcus aureus will produce a yellow halo. Inoculate the MSA plate with a isolated colony Incubate at 37 °C for 48 hours Observe growth If a yellow colored halo around the colony is observed, it is either S. aureus white or S. aureus gold. The way to differentiate between the two is the color of the colony itself, which respectively is, white or golden (yellow). S. aureus is part of the normal flora and what is the usually cause of infections and pimples. If the MSA plate shows no yellow halo, then it is either Micrococcus roseus or Staphylococcus epidermis. The way to differentiate between them is the color of the colony itself. Micrococcus will appear red in color due to a pigment it secretes  [5]  , while S. epidermis will be a white color. Both are normal skin flora. If the organism is gram negative, the first test to run is the lactose supplement phenol red broth. The purpose of this test is to indicate whether or not the organism can use lactose as a food source. Fermenting lactose will produce an acidic waste and cause the phenol red to change color. A positive test will turn yellow. Inoculate a tube with an isolated colony Incubate at 37 °C for 48 hours Observe color change If the organism cannot utilize lactose, then perhaps it can use glucose as a food source. The glucose phenol red broth tests for a similar metabolic process as the lactose one. Inoculate a tube with an isolated colony Incubate at 37o C for 48 hours Observe color change If the bacteria are glucose negative, then it is either Pseudomonas (Burkeholderia) cepacia or Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The two can be differentiated by the pigment of the colonies. P. cepacia will appear a light purple color while P. aeruginosa will be white, and also produce a green pigment known as pyocyanin  [6]  . If glucose positive, a citrate slant must be prepared. The citrate slant tests for the ability to use citrate as a carbon source. A positive result will turn the green slant blue. Inoculate the slant with an isolated colony Incubate Observe color If citrate negative, the bacteria is Proteus vulgaris. It is a bacterium that normally inhabits the intestines of humans and in certain cases can cause infections, albeit in most cases of immunocompromised individuals. If citrate positive, the organism is Serratia marcescens. It also produces a red pigment that can be used to identify it. The bacteria are found throughout environments and can be observed upon bathtubs that dont get washed often  [7]  . If the organism can ferment lactose, then the citrate test is prepared. The citrate slant tests for the ability to use citrate as a carbon source. A positive result will turn the green slant blue. Inoculate the slant with an isolated colony Incubate Observe color If citrate negative, the bacteria is E. coli. This is one of the most used model organisms for gram negative studies in labs. The rod shaped bacteria can cause some food poisoning if ingested. But the best use of it is in the labs, as it is easy to care for, replicates fast, and genetically simple, allowing for genetic research  [8]  . If citrate positive, the bacteria could be either Enterococcus or Citrobacter. The test to differentiate between the two is a Methyl red à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ Voges Proskauer media. The MR-VP is used to differentiate bacteria based on the ability to hydrolyze dextrose and create stable organic acids during fermentation. The MR-VP test combines the two separate tests. The positive result for the methyl red test is a red color when the methyl red indicator is added to the media. The positive result for the Voges Proskauer test is a red color. Inoculate two MR-VPs Incubate Add the MR reagent to one tube and observe any color change every 10 mins Look for any color change for the VP test before addition of reagent If MR-VP positive, the organism is Enterobacter. E. aerogenes can cause infections and is considered pathogenic; however it still does exist as part of the normal flora of the human intestines. If MR-VP negative, the organism is Citrobacter. They are ubiquitous in the environment and also inhabit the intestines. Results: Respiratory swabs: The streak plate to identify organisms with hemolytic abilities showed growth of many different bacteria morphologies. Green and white colonies were observed to be growing on top of the plate. The media remained red throughout; no indication of any white spots. The pour plates for were both too numerous to count. Unknown organisms: The organisms were isolated using a streak plate. Two isolations were obtained at two temperatures, 25 ­o C and 37o C. the plate at room temperature showed red pigmented colonies (B), while the body temperature plate showed thick white colonies (A). A third unknown was given pre-inoculated (C). Three biochemical tests and two morphological tests were used to identify the first unknown organism after isolation. A gram stain revealed that the organism was gram positive; being violet under the 100x oil immersion lens. Also while under the microscope, it was revealed that organism A was cocci. A catalase test was done and organism A was determined to be catalase positive, producing bubbles after addition of hydrogen peroxide. The unknown bacteria were inoculated on a mannitol salt agar, which showed the halo, a positive result. To identify between the two staphylococci aureus, the pigment of the colonies was used: white. A gram stain revealed that organism B was gram negative; red under the 100x oil immersion lens. A lactose and glucose tube was inoculated in the same period to identify the ability to utilize those sugars. The organism was not able to metabolize lactose and was able to use glucose. A citrate slant was inoculated, after 48 hours the butt and slant of the citrate slant was turned blue; positive result. The third unknown was tested to be gram positive. A catalase test came out negative, producing no bubbles. Conclusions: Respiratory swab: Because no halo or clearing of any kind was observed in the media around the colonies, it can be safely said that none of the organisms in our throat swabs contained bacteria capable of hemolysis. This lack of hemolytic ability is known has gamma hemolysis. The pour plates were TNTC. This is probably because the dilutions performed were not enough; too many organisms were taken per tonsil swab. At the time, both participants were mildly sick and had seasonal allergies, possibly contributing to the amount of organisms per swab. Unknown organisms: Three unknown organisms were presented for identification. Organism A was successfully identified as Staphylococcus aureus white. What lead to that identification is that S. aureus is a gram positive cocci that produces catalase and is able to use mannitol and grow on the mannitol salt agar and produce the halo; it was determined that the color of the colonies was white as opposed to gold. S. aureus is a common bacteria found on the skin and part of human normal flora. The bacteria can cause minor infections of the skin and can sometimes cause serious diseases and infection if it reaches the systemic circuit  [i]  . Organism B was identified as Serratia marcescens. It is a gram negative rod that can ferment glucose and citrate, but not lactose. It is a common environmental bacterium that can sometimes cause infections in skin and the urinary tract. S. marcescens is part of the family enterobacteriaceae and produces a red pigment that can be found on bathtubs and tiles, feeding on soap residues  [ii]  . Organism C was identified to be Lactobacillus acidophilus. It is a gram positive rod that does not produce any catalase for hydrogen peroxide breakdown. The bacteria are part of Lactobacillus which ferments sugars into lactic acids. This bacterium is used often for the production of many dairy products such as cheese and yogurt. L. acidophilus is part of normal human flora and can be found on the skin or gut. Sometimes it is used as a probiotic supplement. It also prevents Candida from overgrowing in the female vagina  [iii]  . All three organisms were identified successfully with the use of classic techniques.

Free College Admissions Essays: Studying Criminology :: College Admissions Essays

I am Interested in Studying Criminology I am interested in studying Criminology, This is because I'm fascinated by Topics like why/what people commit crime, Drugs and Society, and in fact all aspects of crime interest me. Various career options attract me including Probation, and Criminal Psychology. The courses I have chosen are BSc (Hons) Criminology and Criminal Justice, and BSc (Hons) Psychology and Criminology. I know that I'll have to work hard to gain a Degree but I'm prepared to do whatever it takes, I work well under pressure. I have chosen Portsmouth university primarily because of the reputation its Criminology Department has, and also my partner is currently doing a degree at Portsmouth as are many of my friends so I know a lot about student life at Portsmouth. I can apply experience and personal skills gained in a variety of working and personal environments. I am finding the Access course very exciting, I love all the subjects, and it seems one subject would cease to exist without the other. I am particularly enjoying Sociology, as I was sixteen the last time I studied it, now I feel like I have a greater understanding of the subject. Psychology is a topic I have always followed. I'm enjoying Law, its such a diverse subject but I especially like Criminal law, the debates we have in the classroom really get me energized. I enjoy reading about crime; I am currently reading a book called Hunting Humans; which is various profiles of serial killers. I am an inquisitive person and also very suspicious, I tend to read between the lines, so its not surprising I love Psychological thrillers like "Seven" and "Silence of the Lambs".

Assess the success of different methods used to overcome the imbalance between population and food supply

The term imbalance refers to a difference between the population's demands for food and the actual food supply. It is estimated that the current population of the earth is six billion people. There are two main theories that relate to population growth and food supply, these being the â€Å"Malthusian theory† and the â€Å"Boserup theory†. Thomas Malthus was an English clergyman and economist who lived from 1766 to 1834; Malthus expressed a pessimistic view over the dangers of overpopulation. He believed that the food supply was the main limiting factor to population growth. He also believed that human population increases geometrically whereas food supplies can only grow arithmetically. A Danish economist put the optimistic theory together in 1965 her name was Esther Boserup. She believed that an increase in population would stimulate technologists to increase food production. The sentence â€Å"Necessity is the mother of invention† sums up the Boserup theory. Agricultural Responses The green revolution is a worldwide agricultural movement but it all started in Mexico in 1944 and it involved the simultaneous development of 2 things; these include: > New varieties of food plants. > Altered agricultural practises that greatly increase crop yields. When the green revolution started in Mexico in 1944, it was importing half its wheat but twenty years later it was able to export half a million tons of wheat due to the green revolutions effectiveness. Even though in theory it achieved what it was set up to do it still had many disadvantages. Many farmers who invested heavily in the new technologies brought in from the western world found themselves laden with massive debts. An example of this is the Punjab area of India where the debt in rural areas has run to a staggering fifty billion rupees (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½745 Million). Also excessive pumping has led to a drop in groundwater and the water has become saline. Other problems cased by the green revolution include: > Human population growth > Diminished â€Å"biodiversity† in crops > Inherent soil fertility and water quality > Pesticides > Land degradation Demographic Response A demographic response to over population is China's one child policy. This policy was brought in by the communist government in 1979 to try and reduce China's ever-growing population. To aid this policy they brought in a law limiting a couple to only have one child. There are exceptions to this law ethnic minority are formal exceptions and families that produce a child with a mental or physical disabilities are sometimes allowed to have a second child. There is also financial incentives for couples to remain childless of only have one child. This however has had some very serious implications these include: > Human rights issues > Female infanticide > Sex imbalance > Aging population The policy is also difficult to enforce in rural areas where the policy is more open to corruption as large families are needed to support their parents in old age. Sometimes pregnant women would even be sent to relatives so that a child would be unregistered. This policy has proven to be fairly successful as it has managed to reduce population growth so that the population is remaining stable however it has not managed to reduced the population and it is not meeting its targets. My conclusion is that both approaches to tackling this global problem have positives and negatives to be taken from them. But on the whole they are causing more problems than they are solving so therefore I believe that both solutions are failing.

The Story Behind the Famous Christinas World

The Story Behind the Famous Christinas World Take a wrong turn by the prison in Thomaston, Maine, and youll bump down a pebble road and land smack inside a painting. Or so it seems. Hathorn Point in South Cushing, Maine In the remote town of South Cushing in Maine, a stark, weather-beaten farmhouse sits on the east side of Hathorn Point Road, on a grassy rise overlooking the St. George River and the distant sea. In summer the grass might be a close-cut emerald green and a row of pines fringes the horizon, but all the other details are shockingly familiar. This is the scene from Andrew Wyeths haunting 1948 painting Christinas World. Stepping from a car, or from one of several tour busses that lumbers down the narrow road, one might half expected to see the crippled young Christina Olson, in a pale pink dress, crawling through the grass. The landscape is so well-known. The Olson Home was built by  Captain Samuel Hathorn II in the 1700s, which makes it a genuine Colonial style - a home built during the colonial period in American history. The Hathorns, a seafaring family from Salem, Massachusetts, originally built a log cabin on the property before the Captain upscaled to a framed construction. In 1871, Captain Samuel Hathorn IV replaced the old hip roof with a pitched roof and added several bedrooms on the third floor. A half century later, his descendants, the Olsons, invited the young Andrew Wyeth to use one of the upstairs rooms as a part-time studio. I just couldnt stay away from there, the Pennsylvania-born Wyeth once remarked. It was Maine. When entering the house in late spring, a visitor may be followed by the sweet scent of lilac from the bushes planted outside. Inside the rooms seem bare - the beds and chairs have been removed and even the wood stoves that supplied the only source of heat are gone. Visiting hours are limited to roughly four months of Maines most temperate climate - similar to the last quarter of the 19th century when rooms were rented only in the summer months. Wyeth used his upstairs studio for 30 years and featured the house in many paintings and lithographs.The artist captured stark rooms, austere mantels, and somber rooftop views. Only an easel marks the spot where Wyeth worked at the Olson house. No Small Worlds In the 1890s, John Olson married Katie Hathorn and took over the farm and summer house. Two of their children, Christina and Alvaro, lived all their lives in what is now called the Olson House. A young Andrew Wyeth, who had summered in Maine as a boy, was introduced to the Olsons by Betsy, a local girl who would become Andrews wife. Wyeth sketched both Alvara and Christina   while in Maine, but its the 1948 painting that people remember. Some say that old houses take on the personalities of their owners, but Wyeth knew something more. In the portraits of that house, the windows are eyes or pieces of the soul, almost, he said years later. To me, each window is a different part of Christinas life. Neighbors claim that the crippled Christina had no idea that her small world had become so famous. No doubt, the appeal of Wyeths iconic painting is the visualization of a universal desire - to seek a place called home. The world of ones home is never small. For decades after Christinas death, the house changed hands several times. For awhile there was nervous speculation that it would become yet another New England bed and breakfast inn. One owner, movie mogul Joseph Levine, brought in Hollywood set builders to authenticate the place by spraying its rooms with fake cobwebs and weathering the faà §ade so it resembled the building Wyeth painted. Finally, the house sold to John Sculley, former CEO of Apple Computer Inc., and Lee Adams Sculley. In 1991 they gave it to the Farnsworth Art Museum in nearby Rockland. The house is now protected by being named a National Historic Landmark. During the spring, summer, and fall you can tour the humble farmhouse and grounds that haunted the famous American painter. Stop at the Farnsworth Art Museum in Rockland, Maine for a map and you wont even have to get lost to discover Wyeths world. Key Points - Why the Olson House Is Preserved The Olson House has been on the National Register of Historic Places since 1995. The property is significant not for its architecture but for its association with the events and people who have contributed to our cultural history - American artist Andrew Wyeth  (1917-2009) and his paintings. The property has been a National Historic Landmark since 2011.From 1939 to 1968 Andrew Wyeth was inspired to draw and paint the house, objects related to its occupants, and the occupants themselves - the polio-crippled Christina Olson (1893-1968) and her brother, Alvaro Olson (1894-1967). The Olson were the children of John Olson and Kate Hathorn, whose great-grandfather built the house in Maine.Over 300 works by Wyeth are attributed to being associated with the Olson house, including Oil Lamp, 1945; Christina Olson, 1947; Seed Corn, 1948; Christinas World, 1948; Egg Scale, 1950; Hay Ledge, 1957; Geraniums, 1960; Wood Stove, 1962; Weather Side, 1965; and End of Olsons, 1969.The Farnsworth Mus eum continues to restore and preserve the Olson House with period appropriate architectural salvage and reclaimed lumber. Remilled old growth white pine beams and rafters from a 19th century Boston structure were used to restore the Olson homes exterior. Andrew Wyeth is buried in nearby Hawthorn Cemetery, along with Christina and Alvaro Olson and other Hawthorns and Olsons. Sources Olson House, Farnsworth Museum, https://www.farnsworthmuseum.org/visit/historic-sites/olsen-house/ [accessed February 18, 2018]National Register of Historic Places Registration Form, NPS Form 10-900 (Oct. 1990), prepared by Kirk F. Mohney, Architectural Historian, Maine Historic Preservation Commission, July 1993Christina’s World, Longleaf Lumber, https://www.longleaflumber.com/christinas-world/ [accessed February 18, 2018]Historic Restoration, The Penobscot Company, Inc., thepencogc.com/historic_restoration.html [accessed February 18, 2018]Additional photo of Olson House, btwashburn via flickr.com Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0)

Free Essays on Ozone Layers

egnegnbeOzone Ozone derives from the greek word ozein which means to smell. It was first discovered in 1839 by Christian Friedrick Schonbein who noticed it because of its distinctive acrid smell. He discovered this at the University of Basel in Switzerland. Ozone is merely oxygen, but not the type we breath. Ozone, O3 has three compounds while oxygen has only two. Ozone is reac- tive, meaning it does not stay still, and wants to go back to its original state, with two compounds, O2. This is why ozone is harmful. Ozone always wants to let go of its third compound, and if this compound reacts with other substances, it could be damaging, especially to humans. When discussing with the ozone layer, one should know the four major atmosphere levels on earth. The troposphere which is between zero and fifteen kilometers in altitude and has tempera- ture ranges from two hundred to two hundred ninety kelvins. The second is the stratosphere which ranges from fifteen to approxi- mately fifty kilometers in altitude and has temperature ranges from two hundred to two hundred fifty kelvins. The third level in the atmosphere is mesosphere. This level ranges from fifty to eighty-five kilometers in altitude and has temperature ranges between one hundred eighty and two hundred fifty kelvins. Finally, the thermosphere is the final level in the atmosphere. It's range is eighty- five to one hundred forty kilometers and also temperatures as high as four hundred sixty kelvins. Society has been widely addressed with the many problems that we are having in our environment today. A major problem is that of CFCs. CFC stands for Chlorofluorocarbons which are found in many of the aerosol spray cans. In December of 1973, Rowland and Molina discovered that CFCs can destroy the ozone in the stratosphere. In June 1975, the Natural Resources Defence Council (NRDC) sued the Consumers Product Safety Commis... Free Essays on Ozone Layers Free Essays on Ozone Layers egnegnbeOzone Ozone derives from the greek word ozein which means to smell. It was first discovered in 1839 by Christian Friedrick Schonbein who noticed it because of its distinctive acrid smell. He discovered this at the University of Basel in Switzerland. Ozone is merely oxygen, but not the type we breath. Ozone, O3 has three compounds while oxygen has only two. Ozone is reac- tive, meaning it does not stay still, and wants to go back to its original state, with two compounds, O2. This is why ozone is harmful. Ozone always wants to let go of its third compound, and if this compound reacts with other substances, it could be damaging, especially to humans. When discussing with the ozone layer, one should know the four major atmosphere levels on earth. The troposphere which is between zero and fifteen kilometers in altitude and has tempera- ture ranges from two hundred to two hundred ninety kelvins. The second is the stratosphere which ranges from fifteen to approxi- mately fifty kilometers in altitude and has temperature ranges from two hundred to two hundred fifty kelvins. The third level in the atmosphere is mesosphere. This level ranges from fifty to eighty-five kilometers in altitude and has temperature ranges between one hundred eighty and two hundred fifty kelvins. Finally, the thermosphere is the final level in the atmosphere. It's range is eighty- five to one hundred forty kilometers and also temperatures as high as four hundred sixty kelvins. Society has been widely addressed with the many problems that we are having in our environment today. A major problem is that of CFCs. CFC stands for Chlorofluorocarbons which are found in many of the aerosol spray cans. In December of 1973, Rowland and Molina discovered that CFCs can destroy the ozone in the stratosphere. In June 1975, the Natural Resources Defence Council (NRDC) sued the Consumers Product Safety Commis...

The communcation gap between man and women Essay

The communcation gap between man and women - Essay Example In order to overcome difficulties in communication, it is necessary to take into account a lot of factors, starting from basic gender differences and social roles of men and women. Both differences in verbal and non-verbal communication should be taken into account in order to bridge communication gap between men and women. There are three decisive points that determine communication gap between opposite sexes: the way of thinking, speaking and decision making are different. The process of thinking among men is divided into sections. They consider everything properly, step by step focusing on one detail after another. Women think globally, they consider the whole things in general; they have no sections in their thinking. Men’s way of thinking can be compared with files stored on the computer: thoughts and ideas about different events are stored separately. Men don’t mix up such sections as Work, Personal relations, Hobbies etc. Thus, when a wife asks his husband to buy something on his way from work to home and he buys nothing, it means that he was concerned about his section Work. Women in their thinking combine different thoughts from different periods of their lives; they look at events in their life globally. Women try to draw parallels between different events. On this basis a lot of arguments may occur between spouses: a wife can compare her husband’s behavior with the one shown by him months ago and he may get irritated. The things different to him are equal to her. Thus sectional and global ways of thinking are two different and unique ways of thinking. Another difference occurs in the way of speaking between men and women. Men speak about facts with no details or descriptions; they speak in short phrases. Women speak in paragraphs and more concerned about details, descriptions than about facts. Women enjoy telling a story; men enjoy when they talk about facts. Therefore if you want to reach

Using Buddhism in Todays Modern World Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Using Buddhism in Todays Modern World - Essay Example Many people associate Buddhism with all sorts of things, i.e. incense, bald monks, temples, the figure of Buddha sitting with a benign smile on his face, chanting, vegetarianism, etc. I know this to be the case because these are words and images I get whenever I ask people to free-associate on the word Buddhism. One person even associated Buddhism with liquor because he had just gone the night before to a place called Buddha bar! What all these shows are instances of an average person on the street having all sorts of preconceptions about Buddhism. Even those who have read little about it have all sorts of misconceptions about it, thinking that Buddhism is pessimistic for emphasizing on suffering, or that Buddhism is a religion that regards the Buddha as a god. What I want to do in this paper is to go beyond the rituals and external trappings of Buddhism in order to touch the deeper core of the teachings. This will help me understand how Buddhism could help us cope with life’s struggles in today’s modern world. At the heart of Buddhism is The Four Noble Truths (Hanh 9). This is the very foundation of Buddhist teachings, which differentiate it from other religions. These teachings say that (1) human existence is characterized by suffering, (2) that there is a cause for suffering, (3) that there is a way out of suffering through the elimination of its cause, and (4) that there is a path leading to the cessation of suffering (Hanh 9-11). In most Buddhist texts, it is said that the cause of suffering is trishna or craving (Bercholz and Kohn 64). We suffer because we have too many wants and needs. We own a cell phone but soon grow dissatisfied with it as soon as a new model comes along; we own a car but soon get dissatisfied with it because we desire a better, faster or more luxurious model; we have a perfectly good relationship with someone but then look for someone else because we want something new and more exciting. All these desires inevitably lea d to suffering because we cannot possibly fulfill them all. In the end, we get utterly frustrated. Actually, if we think about it hard enough, there are many causes of suffering, since there are many types of suffering. The suffering that results from viral infection that makes you sick is not due to desire but to the presence of a virus that has infected you. Some other forms of suffering that do not have desire as their root cause would be a headache, a toothache, a broken limb, and various other physical pains. These forms of suffering, which are all physical, are to be distinguished from other forms of suffering which are mental. Examples of mental suffering would be depression, worry, jealousy, regret, anxiety, etc. Between the two general forms of suffering, it is the mental type of suffering that the Buddhism tries to address because they believe that this is the more serious type of suffering. When you are sick with a fever, you can make yourself feel better by changing your attitude about your sickness to a rather positive light. However, if you are suffering from some sort of mental anguish, it does not quite help if you work on the body. In fact, people do not commit suicide because of a toothache, but there are those who would commit suicide because of a heartache. The Role of The Mind What we need to understand at this point is that the mind plays a very big role in human suffering. We need to understand this very clearly if we want to get a glimpse of the heart of Buddhist teachings. Here, we emphasize on the importance of one’s attitude or state of mind with regards to the experience of happiness and suffering (Smith 245). If we think about it close enough, we should also come to the conclusion that our state of mind also affects other people’s happiness or suffering. Here is an example to illustrate this point. Suppose you have just received word that the backpack which you lost in school was finally found with everything intact.